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https://www.facebook.com/plugins/post.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fekaterina.semenova666%2Fposts%2F115660480104393&width=500 Watch Full Length Juvenile delinquants. Juvenile Delinquency | RAND Skip to page content RAND Topics >Juvenile Delinquency Featured Juvenile delinquency—negative behaviors of children and teens that may result in crimes or legal action—frequently causes widespread problems in communities. RAND's research on juvenile delinquency includes populations from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds and features studies related to crime and juvenile justice, at-risk populations, violence, bullying, substance abuse prevention and treatment, and adolescent mental health. News Release Younger Americans Much More Likely to Have Been Arrested Than Previous Generations; Increase Is Largest Among Whites and Women Americans under the age of 26 are much more likely to have been arrested than Americans born in previous decades, with the increase in arrest rates occurring most rapidly among white Americans and women. The rising rate of arrests and convictions is associated with a variety of negative ramifications. Journal Article To Educate or to Incarcerate: Examining Disparities in School Discipline Several factors contribute to disparities in office referral, suspension, and expulsion in high schools. Helping students engage in school may protect against disproportionate school discipline. Explore Juvenile Delinquency By Category All Authors Report Evaluation of a Trauma-Informed Program for Juvenile Justice-Involved Youth: The Pilot Program at Lookout Mountain Youth Services Center In this report, the authors present the results of a process and outcome evaluation of a trauma-informed pilot program run by the Colorado Division of Youth Services (DYS) in one of their residential youth facilities. Process Evaluation of AssetPlus A process evaluation of the roll-out of AssetPlus (assessment and planning framework used by youth offending teams) in England and Wales. Practitioners supported the ideas behind AssetPlus but faced challenges with easy use and information-sharing. National Guard Youth ChalleNGe: Program Progress in 2017–2018 This report documents the progress of participants in the National Guard Youth ChalleNGe program in 2017-2018. ChalleNGe is a residential, quasi-military program for youth ages 16-18 who are experiencing difficulty in traditional high school. Blog Boris Johnson, Teacher Training, Youth Arrests: RAND Weekly Recap This weekly recap focuses on Boris Johnson's Brexit challenge, how educators feel about their training programs, a spike in youth arrests, and more. Research Brief As Youthful Arrests Spike, Their Consequences Rise, Too Americans ages 26 to 35 are 3. 6 times more likely to have been arrested by age 26 than those who are at least age 66. The consequences may be serious and lasting for these young people—and for the nation. Trump-Kim Summit, Climate Change, Zarif: RAND Weekly Recap This weekly recap focuses on the Trump-Kim summit, how cities can prepare for climate change, Mohammad Javad Zarif's resignation, and more. Article Helping Police Find Better Strategies to Fight Crime Which policing strategies are the most effective? A new RAND toolkit aims to help law enforcement agencies identify the best approach for the situation, and the key steps to success. National Guard Youth ChalleNGe: Program Progress in 2016–2017 This report presents information on recent participants of the National Guard Youth ChalleNGe, a quasi-military program for young people lacking a high school diploma. It also documents program progress in academics, fitness, and other areas. The Long-Term Economic Impact of Criminalization in American Childhoods In this article, I document some salient and disturbing trends concerning the interaction of American youth with the criminal justice system based on a module I recently added to the PSID. Los Angeles County Juvenile Justice Crime Prevention Act: Fiscal Year 2016–2017 Report This annual report to the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors evaluates the Juvenile Justice Crime Prevention Act, which offers programs to high-need juvenile probationers and at-risk youths. Education for Incarcerated Juveniles: A Meta-Analysis Though the evidence base about what works in juvenile correctional education remains incomplete, the existing research does suggest promising directions for future programmatic investments. Leveraging Research and Philanthropy to Reduce Crime and Violence in the Mississippi Delta The crime and violence rates in the two most populous cities in the Mississippi Delta region are significantly higher than in their surrounding areas. How are foundations funding crime and violence reduction in these areas? School-Based Interventions for Reducing Disciplinary School Exclusion The evidence suggests that school-based interventions are effective at reducing school exclusion immediately after, and for a few months after, the intervention. Commentary The Perils of Setting Police Targets: First Time Entrants to the Youth Justice System The police play a critical role in determining whether young people are either directed towards or diverted away from the justice system. Introducing policing targets can create perverse incentives and raises particular concerns because of the potential damaging effects that criminalization can have on young people. An Analysis of Trends in First Time Entrants to the Youth Justice System A study to investigate the possible factors related to the rapid changes in the number of first time entrants to the youth justice system in England and Wales. National Guard Youth ChalleNGe: Program Progress in 2015–2016 National Guard Youth ChalleNGe is a residential, quasi-military program for young people at risk of dropping out of high school. This report provides information on recent ChalleNGe participants and develops metrics of program success. Los Angeles County Juvenile Justice Crime Prevention Act: Fiscal Year 2015–2016 Report Exploring the transferability and applicability of gang evaluation methodologies to counter-violent radicalisation Through a targeted literature review and comparative analysis, this report examines the transferable lessons that can be drawn from evaluations of gang interventions and applied to evaluation practice in the field of counter violent extremism. Gender Differences in the Association Between Conduct Disorder and Risky Sexual Behavior Conduct disorder is associated with risky sexual behavior among youth, but the specific behavior most strongly associated with conduct disorder is different for female and males.
https://www.facebook.com/plugins/post.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fmobile.facebook.com%2Fpermalink.php%3Fstory_fbid%3D214836239823989%26id%3D100038928432921&width=500 800 followers Juvenile Delinquents hails from the Kent coast, however he is making big waves across the U. K. & beyond, in the first six months of this project this hot new artist has had no less than 10 releases under his belt! ABOUT JUVENILE DELINQUENTS Juvenile Delinquents Juvenile Delinquents hails from the Kent coast, however he is making big waves across the U. & bey... See More Facebook is showing information to help you better understand the purpose of a Page. See actions taken by the people who manage and post content. Page created - July 23, 2018.
Uniform Crime Report: - Data are collected from records from police departments across the nation, crimes reported to police, and arrests. - Strengths of the UCR are that it measures homicides and arrests and that it is a consistent, national sample. - Weaknesses of the UCR are that it omits crimes not reported to police, omits most drug usage, and contains reporting errors. National Crime Victimization Survey: - Data are collected from a large national survey. - Strengths of the NCVS are that it includes crimes not reported to the police, uses careful sampling techniques, and is a yearly survey. - Weaknesses of the NCVS are that it relies on victims' memory and honesty and that it omits substance abuse. Self-Report Surveys: - Data are collected from local surveys. - Strengths of self-report surveys are that they include unreported crimes, substance abuse, and offenders' personal information. - Weaknesses of self-report surveys are that they rely on the honesty of offenders and omit offenders who refuse or are unable, as a consequence of incarceration, to participate (and who therefore may be the most deviant). - Official arrest statistics, victim data, and self-reports indicate that males are significantly more delinquent than females. In recent years, however, the female delinquency rate appears to be increasing faster than that for males. - Although the true association between class and delinquency is still unknown, the official data tell us that delinquency rates are highest in areas with high rates of poverty. - African American youths are arrested for a disproportionate number of delinquent acts, such as robbery and assault, whereas European American youths are arrested for a disproportionate share of arson and alcohol-related violations. - One view is that institutional racism, such as police profiling, accounts for the racial differences in the delinquency rate. A second view is that racial differences in the delinquency rate are a function of living in a racially segregated society. - Kids who engage in the most serious forms of delinquency are more likely to be members of the lower class. - Delinquency rates decline with age. As youthful offenders mature, the likelihood that they will commit offenses declines. - The social structure view is that position in the socioeconomic structure influences the chances of becoming a delinquent. - Poor kids are more likely to commit crimes, because they are unable to achieve monetary or social success in any other way. - Kids who live in socially disorganized areas commit crime because the forces of social control have broken down. - Social disorganization theory focuses on the conditions within the urban environment that affect delinquency rates, such as socioeconomic conditions. - Delinquency rates are sensitive to the destructive social forces operating in lower-class urban neighborhoods. - Poverty undermines the basic stabilizing forces of the community--family, school, peers, and neighbors-- rendering them weakened, attenuated, and ineffective. - The ability of the community to control its inhabitants--to assert informal social control--is damaged and frayed. - Contemporary social disorganization theorists have found an association between delinquency rates and community deterioration: disorder, poverty, alienation, disassociation, and fear of delinquency.
Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly resolution 45/112 of 14 December 1990 I. Fundamental principles 1. The prevention of juvenile delinquency is an essential part of crime prevention in society. By engaging in lawful, socially useful activities and adopting a humanistic orientation towards society and outlook on life, young persons can develop non-criminogenic attitudes. 2. The successful prevention of juvenile delinquency requires efforts on the part of the entire society to ensure the harmonious development of adolescents, with respect for and promotion of their personality from early childhood. 3. For the purposes of the interpretation of the present Guidelines, a child-centred orientation should be pursued. Young persons should have an active role and partnership within society and should not be considered as mere objects of socialization or control. 4. In the implementation of the present Guidelines, in accordance with national legal systems, the well-being of young persons from their early childhood should be the focus of any preventive programme. 5. The need for and importance of progressive delinquency prevention policies and the systematic study and the elaboration of measures should be recognized. These should avoid criminalizing and penalizing a child for behaviour that does not cause serious damage to the development of the child or harm to others. Such policies and measures should involve: (a) The provision of opportunities, in particular educational opportunities, to meet the varying needs of young persons and to serve as a supportive framework for safeguarding the personal development of all young persons, particularly those who are demonstrably endangered or at social risk and are in need of special care and protection; (b) Specialized philosophies and approaches for delinquency prevention, on the basis of laws, processes, institutions, facilities and a service delivery network aimed at reducing the motivation, need and opportunity for, or conditions giving rise to, the commission of infractions; (c) Official intervention to be pursued primarily in the overall interest of the young person and guided by fairness and equity; (d) Safeguarding the well-being, development, rights and interests of all young persons; (e) Consideration that youthful behaviour or conduct that does not conform to overall social norms and values is often part of the maturation and growth process and tends to disappear spontaneously in most individuals with the transition to adulthood; (f) Awareness that, in the predominant opinion of experts, labelling a young person as "deviant"', "delinquent" or "pre-delinquent" often contributes to the development of a consistent pattern of undesirable behaviour by young persons. 6. Community-based services and programmes should be developed for the prevention of juvenile delinquency, particularly where no agencies have yet been established. Formal agencies of social control should only be utilized as a means of last resort. II. Scope of the Guidelines 7. The present Guidelines should be interpreted and implemented within the broad framework of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Declaration of the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and in the context of the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules), as well as other instruments and norms relating to the rights, interests and well-being of all children and young persons. 8. The present Guidelines should also be implemented in the context of the economic, social and cultural conditions prevailing in each Member State. III. General prevention 9. Comprehensive prevention plans should be instituted at every level of Government and include the following: (a) In-depth analyses of the problem and inventories of programmes, services, facilities and resources available; (b) Well-defined responsibilities for the qualified agencies, institutions and personnel involved in preventive efforts; (c) Mechanisms for the appropriate co-ordination of prevention efforts between governmental and non-governmental agencies; (d) Policies, programmes and strategies based on prognostic studies to be continuously monitored and carefully evaluated in the course of implementation; (e) Methods for effectively reducing the opportunity to commit delinquent acts; (f) Community involvement through a wide range of services and programmes; (g) Close interdisciplinary co-operation between national, State, provincial and local governments, with the involvement of the private sector, representative citizens of the community to be served, and labour, child-care, health education, social, law enforcement and judicial agencies in taking concerted action to prevent juvenile delinquency and youth crime; (h) Youth participation in delinquency prevention policies and processes, including recourse to community resources, youth self-help, and victim compensation and assistance programmes; (i) Specialized personnel at all levels. IV. Socialization processes 10. Emphasis should be placed on preventive policies facilitating the successful socialization and integration of all children and young persons, in particular through the family, the community, peer groups, schools, vocational training and the world of work, as well as through voluntary organizations. Due respect should be given to the proper personal development of children and young persons, and they should be accepted as full and equal partners in socialization and integration processes. A. Family 11. Every society should place a high priority on the needs and well-being of the family and of all its members. 12. Since the family is the central unit responsible for the primary socialization of children, governmental and social efforts to preserve the integrity of the family, including the extended family, should be pursued. The society has a responsibility to assist the family in providing care and protection and in ensuring the physical and mental well-being of children. Adequate arrangements including day-care should be provided. 13. Governments should establish policies that are conducive to the bringing up of children in stable and settled family environments. Families in need of assistance in the resolution of conditions of instability or conflict should be provided with requisite services. 14. Where a stable and settled family environment is lacking and when community efforts to assist parents in this regard have failed and the extended family cannot fulfil this role, alternative placements, including foster care and adoption, should be considered. Such placements should replicate, to the extent possible, a stable and settled family environment, while, at the same time, establishing a sense of permanency for children, thus avoiding problems associated with "foster drift". 15. Special attention should be given to children of families affected by problems brought about by rapid and uneven economic, social and cultural change, in particular the children of indigenous, migrant and refugee families. As such changes may disrupt the social capacity of the family to secure the traditional rearing and nurturing of children, often as a result of role and culture conflict, innovative and socially constructive modalities for the socialization of children have to be designed. 16. Measures should be taken and programmes developed to provide families with the opportunity to learn about parental roles and obligations as regards child development and child care, promoting positive parent-child relationships, sensitizing parents to the problems of children and young persons and encouraging their involvement in family and community-based activities. 17. Governments should take measures to promote family cohesion and harmony and to discourage the separation of children from their parents, unless circumstances affecting the welfare and future of the child leave no viable alternative. 18. It is important to emphasize the socialization function of the family and extended family; it is also equally important to recognize the future role, responsibilities, participation and partnership of young persons in society. 19. In ensuring the right of the child to proper socialization, Governments and other agencies should rely on existing social and legal agencies, but, whenever traditional institutions and customs are no longer effective, they should also provide and allow for innovative measures. B. Education 20. Governments are under an obligation to make public education accessible to all young persons. 21. Education systems should, in addition to their academic and vocational training activities, devote particular attention to the following: (a) Teaching of basic values and developing respect for the child's own cultural identity and patterns, for the social values of the country in which the child is living, for civilizations different from the child's own and for human rights and fundamental freedoms; (b) Promotion and development of the personality, talents and mental and physical abilities of young people to their fullest potential; (c) Involvement of young persons as active and effective participants in, rather than mere objects of, the educational process; (d) Undertaking activities that foster a sense of identity with and of belonging to the school and the community; (e) Encouragement of young persons to understand and respect diverse views and opinions, as well as cultural and other differences; (f) Provision of information and guidance regarding vocational training, employment opportunities and career development; (g) Provision of positive emotional support to young persons and the avoidance of psychological maltreatment; (h) Avoidance of harsh disciplinary measures, particularly corporal punishment. 22. Educational systems should seek to work together with parents, community organizations and agencies concerned with the activities of young persons. 23. Young persons and their families should be informed about the law and their rights and responsibilities under the law, as well as the universal value system, including United Nations instruments. 24. Educational systems should extend particular care and attention to young persons who are at social risk. Specialized prevention programmes and educational materials, curricula, approaches and tools should be developed and fully utilized. 25. Special attention should be given to comprehensive policies and strategies for the prevention of alcohol, drug and other substance abuse by young persons. Teachers and other professionals should be equipped and trained to prevent and deal with these problems. Information on the use and abuse of drugs, including alcohol, should be made available to the student body. 26. Schools should serve as resource and referral centres for the provision of medical, counselling and other services to young persons, particularly those with special needs and suffering from abuse, neglect, victimization and exploitation. 27. Through a variety of educational programmes, teachers and other adults and the student body should be sensitized to the problems, needs and perceptions of young persons, particularly those belonging to underprivileged, disadvantaged, ethnic or other minority and low-income groups. 28. School systems should attempt to meet and promote the highest professional and educational standards with respect to curricula, teaching and learning methods and approaches, and the recruitment and training of qualified teachers. Regular monitoring and assessment of performance by the appropriate professional organizations and authorities should be ensured. 29. School systems should plan, develop and implement extracurricular activities of interest to young persons, in co-operation with community groups. 30. Special assistance should be given to children and young persons who find it difficult to comply with attendance codes, and to "drop-outs". 31. Schools should promote policies and rules that are fair and just; students should be represented in bodies formulating school policy, including policy on discipline, and decision-making. C. Community 32. Community-based services and programmes which respond to the special needs, problems, interests and concerns of young persons and which offer appropriate counselling and guidance to young persons and their families should be developed, or strengthened where they exist. 33. Communities should provide, or strengthen where they exist, a wide range of community-based support measures for young persons, including community development centres, recreational facilities and services to respond to the special problems of children who are at social risk. In providing these helping measures, respect for individual rights should be ensured. 34. Special facilities should be set up to provide adequate shelter for young persons who are no longer able to live at or who do not have s to live in. 35. A range of services and helping measures should be provided to deal with the difficulties experienced by young persons in the transition to adulthood. Such services should include special programmes for young drug abusers which emphasize care, counselling, assistance and therapy-oriented interventions. 36. Voluntary organizations providing services for young persons should be given financial and other support by Governments and other institutions. 37. Youth organizations should be created or strengthened at the local level and given full participatory status in the management of community affairs. These organizations should encourage youth to organize collective and voluntary projects, particularly projects aimed at helping young persons in need of assistance. 38. Government agencies should take special responsibility and provide necessary services for less or street children; information about local facilities, accommodation, employment and other forms and sources of help should be made readily available to young persons. 39. A wide range of recreational facilities and services of particular interest to young persons should be established and made easily accessible to them. D. Mass media 40. The mass media should be encouraged to ensure that young persons have access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources. 41. The mass media should be encouraged to portray the positive contribution of young persons to society. 42. The mass media should be encouraged to disseminate information on the existence of services, facilities and opportunities for young persons in society. 43. The mass media generally, and the television and film media in particular, should be encouraged to minimize the level of pornography, drugs and violence portrayed and to display violence and exploitation disfavourably, as well as to avoid demeaning and degrading presentations, especially of children, women and interpersonal relations, and to promote egalitarian principles and roles. 44. The mass media should be aware of its extensive social role and responsibility, as well as its influence, in communications relating to youthful drug and alcohol abuse. It should use its power for drug abuse prevention by relaying consistent messages through a balanced approach. Effective drug awareness campaigns at all levels should be promoted. V. Social policy 45. Government agencies should give high priority to plans and programmes for young persons and should provide sufficient funds and other resources for the effective delivery of services, facilities and staff for adequate medical and mental health care, nutrition, housing and other relevant services, including drug and alcohol abuse prevention and treatment, ensuring that such resources reach and actually benefit young persons. 46. The institutionalization of young persons should be a measure of last resort and for the minimum necessary period, and the best interests of the young person should be of paramount importance. Criteria authorizing formal intervention of this type should be strictly defined and limited to the following situations: (a) where the child or young person has suffered harm that has been inflicted by the parents or guardians; (b) where the child or young person has been sexually, physically or emotionally abused by the parents or guardians; (c) where the child or young person has been neglected, abandoned or exploited by the parents or guardians; (d) where the child or young person is threatened by physical or moral danger due to the behaviour of the parents or guardians; and (e) where a serious physical or psychological danger to the child or young person has manifested itself in his or her own behaviour and neither the parents, the guardians, the juvenile himself or herself nor non-residential community services can meet the danger by means other than institutionalization. 47. Government agencies should provide young persons with the opportunity of continuing in full-time education, funded by the State where parents or guardians are unable to support the young persons, and of receiving work experience. 48. Programmes to prevent delinquency should be planned and developed on the basis of reliable, scientific research findings, and periodically monitored, evaluated and adjusted accordingly. 49. Scientific information should be disseminated to the professional community and to the public at large about the sort of behaviour or situation which indicates or may result in physical and psychological victimization, harm and abuse, as well as exploitation, of young persons. 50. Generally, participation in plans and programmes should be voluntary. Young persons themselves should be involved in their formulation, development and implementation. 51. Government should begin or continue to explore, develop and implement policies, measures and strategies within and outside the criminal justice system to prevent domestic violence against and affecting young persons and to ensure fair treatment to these victims of domestic violence. VI. Legislation and juvenile justice administration 52. Governments should enact and enforce specific laws and procedures to promote and protect the rights and well-being of all young persons. 53. Legislation preventing the victimization, abuse, exploitation and the use for criminal activities of children and young persons should be enacted and enforced. 54. No child or young person should be subjected to harsh or degrading correction or punishment measures at, in schools or in any other institutions. 55. Legislation and enforcement aimed at restricting and controlling accessibility of weapons of any sort to children and young persons should be pursued. 56. In order to prevent further stigmatization, victimization and criminalization of young persons, legislation should be enacted to ensure that any conduct not considered an offence or not penalized if committed by an adult is not considered an offence and not penalized if committed by a young person. 57. Consideration should be given to the establishment of an office of ombudsman or similar independent organ, which would ensure that the status, rights and interests of young persons are upheld and that proper referral to available services is made. The ombudsman or other organ designated would also supervise the implementation of the Riyadh Guidelines, the Beijing Rules and the Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty. The ombudsman or other organ would, at regular intervals, publish a report on the progress made and on the difficulties encountered in the implementation of the instrument. Child advocacy services should also be established. 58. Law enforcement and other relevant personnel, of both sexes, should be trained to respond to the special needs of young persons and should be familiar with and use, to the maximum extent possible, programmes and referral possibilities for the diversion of young persons from the justice system. 59. Legislation should be enacted and strictly enforced to protect children and young persons from drug abuse and drug traffickers. VII. Research, policy development and coordination 60. Efforts should be made and appropriate mechanisms established to promote, on both a multidisciplinary and an intradisciplinary basis, interaction and coordination between economic, social, education and health agencies and services, the justice system, youth, community and development agencies and other relevant institutions. 61. The exchange of information, experience and expertise gained through projects, programmes, practices and initiatives relating to youth crime, delinquency prevention and juvenile justice should be intensified at the national, regional and international levels. 62. Regional and international co-operation on matters of youth crime, delinquency prevention and juvenile justice involving practitioners, experts and decision makers should be further developed and strengthened. 63. Technical and scientific cooperation on practical and policy-related matters, particularly in training, pilot and demonstration projects, and on specific issues concerning the prevention of youth crime and juvenile delinquency should be strongly supported by all Governments, the United Nations system and other concerned organizations. 64. Collaboration should be encouraged in undertaking scientific research with respect to effective modalities for youth crime and juvenile delinquency prevention and the findings of such research should be widely disseminated and evaluated. 65. Appropriate United Nations bodies, institutes, agencies and offices should pursue close collaboration and coordination on various questions related to children juvenile justice and youth crime and juvenile delinquency prevention. 66. On the basis of the present Guidelines, the United Nations Secretariat, in cooperation with interested institutions, should play an active role in the conduct of research, scientific collaboration, the formulation of policy options and the review and monitoring of their implementation, and should serve as a source of reliable information on effective modalities for delinquency prevention.
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Criminology and penology Theory Anomie Biosocial criminology Broken windows Collective efficacy Crime analysis Criminalization Differential association Deviance Labeling theory Psychopathy Rational choice Social control Social disorganization Social learning Strain Subculture Symbolic interactionism Victimology Types of crime Against humanity Blue-collar Corporate Juvenile Organized Political Public-order State State-corporate Victimless White-collar War Methods Comparative Profiling Critical theory Ethnography Uniform Crime Reports Crime mapping Positivist school Qualitative Quantitative BJS NIBRS Penology Denunciation Deterrence Incapacitation Trial Prison abolition open reform Prisoner Prisoner abuse Prisoners' rights Rehabilitation Recidivism Justice in penology Participatory Restorative Retributive Solitary confinement Schools Anarchist criminology Chicago school Classical school Conflict criminology Critical criminology Environmental criminology Feminist school Integrative criminology Italian school Left realism Marxist criminology Neo-classical school Postmodernist school Right realism Subfields American Anthropological Conflict Criminology Critical Culture Cyber Demography Development Environmental Experimental Organizational Public Radical criminology Browse Index Journals Organizations People v t e Part of the Politics series on Youth rights Activities Bailey v. 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Hanson David Joseph Henry John Caldwell Holt Alex Koroknay-Palicz Lyn Duff Mike A. Males Neil Postman Sonia Yaco Related Animal rights Anti-racism Direct democracy Egalitarianism Feminism Libertarianism Students rights Youth rights Society portal v t e Juvenile delinquency, also known " juvenile offending ", is the act of participating in unlawful behavior as minors (juveniles, i. e. individuals younger than the statutory age of majority). [1] Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers and courts, with it being common that juvenile systems are treated as civil cases instead of criminal, or a hybrid thereof to avoid certain requirements required for criminal cases (typically the rights to a public trial or to a jury trial). A juvenile delinquent in the United States is a person who is typically below 18 (17 in Georgia, New York, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina, New Hampshire, Texas, and Wisconsin) years of age and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult. Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to be charged and treated as adults. In recent years [ vague] a higher proportion of youth have experienced arrests by their early 20s than in the past. Some scholars have concluded that this may reflect more aggressive criminal justice and zero-tolerance policies rather than changes in youth behavior. [2] Juvenile crimes can range from status offenses (such as underage smoking/drinking), to property crimes and violent crimes. Youth violence rates in the United States have dropped to approximately 12% of peak rates in 1993 according to official US government statistics, suggesting that most juvenile offending is non-violent. [3] One contributing factor that has gained attention in recent years is the school to prison pipeline. The focus on punitive punishment has been seen to correlate with juvenile delinquency rates. [4] Some have suggested shifting from zero tolerance policies to restorative justice approaches. [5] However, juvenile offending can be considered to be normative adolescent behavior. [6] This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, and only during adolescence. Repeated and/or violent offending is likely to lead to later and more violent offenses. When this happens, the offender often displays antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence. [7] Overview Juvenile delinquency, or offending, is often separated into three categories: delinquency, crimes committed by minors, which are dealt with by the juvenile courts and justice system; criminal behavior, crimes dealt with by the criminal justice system; status offenses, offenses that are only classified as such because only a minor can commit them. One example of this is possession of alcohol by a minor. These offenses are also dealt with by the juvenile courts. [8] Currently, there is not an agency whose jurisdiction is tracking worldwide juvenile delinquency but UNICEF estimates that over one million children are in some type of detention globally. [9] Many countries do not keep records of the amount of delinquent or detained minors but of the ones that do, the United States has the highest number of juvenile delinquency cases. [10] In the United States, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention compiles data concerning trends in juvenile delinquency. According to their most recent publication, 7 in 1000 juveniles in the US committed a serious crime in 2016. [11] A serious crime is defined by the US Department of Justice as one of the following eight offenses: murder and non-negligent homicide, rape (legacy & revised), robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, motor vehicle theft, larceny-theft, and arson. [12] According to research compiled by James Howell in 2009, the arrest rate for juveniles has been dropping consistently since its peak in 1994. [13] Of the cases for juvenile delinquency that make it through the court system, probation is the most common consequence and males account for over 70% of the caseloads. [14] [11] According to developmental research by Moffitt (2006), [6] there are two different types of offenders that emerge in adolescence. The first is an age specific offender, referred to as the adolescence-limited offender, for whom juvenile offending or delinquency begins and ends during their period of adolescence. Moffitt argues that most teenagers tend to show some form of antisocial or delinquent behavior during adolescence, it is therefore important to account for these behaviors in childhood in order to determine whether they will be adolescence-limited offenders or something more long term. [15] The other type of offender is the repeat offender, referred to as the life-course-persistent offender, who begins offending or showing antisocial/aggressive behavior in adolescence (or even in childhood) and continues into adulthood. [7] Situational Factors Most of influencing factors for juvenile delinquency tend to be caused by a mix of both genetic and environmental factors. [16] According to Laurence Steinberg's book Adolescence, the two largest predictors of juvenile delinquency are parenting style and peer group association. [16] Additional factors that may lead a teenager into juvenile delinquency include poor or low socioeconomic status, poor school readiness/performance and/or failure and peer rejection. Delinquent activity, especially the involvement in youth gangs, may also be caused by a desire for protection against violence or financial hardship. Juvenile offenders can view delinquent activity as a means of gaining access to resources to protect against such threats. Research by Carrie Dabb indicates that even changes in the weather can increase the likelihood of children exhibiting deviant behavior. [17] Family Environment Family factors that may have an influence on offending include: the level of parental supervision, the way parents discipline a child, parental conflict or separation, criminal activity by parents or siblings, parental abuse or neglect, and the quality of the parent-child relationship. [18] As mentioned above, parenting style is one of the largest predictors of juvenile delinquency. There are 4 categories of parenting styles which describe the attitudes and behaviors that parents express while raising their children. [19] Authoritative parenting is characterized by warmth and support in addition to discipline. Indulgent parenting is characterized by warmth and regard towards their children but lack structure and discipline. Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high discipline without the warmth thus leading to often hostile demeanor and harsh correction Neglectful parenting is both non responsive and non demanding. The child is not engaged either affectionately or disciplinary by the parent. [19] According to research done by Laura E. Berk, the style of parenting that would be most beneficial for a child, based on studies conducted by Diana Baumrind(1971) is the authoritative child-rearing style because it combines acceptance with discipline to render healthy development for the child. [20] [21] As concluded in Steinberg's Adolescence, children brought up by single parents are more likely to live in poverty and engage in delinquent behavior than those who live with both parents. [16] However, according to research done by Graham and Bowling, once the attachment a child feels towards their parent(s) and the level of parental supervision are taken into account, children in single parent families are no more likely to offend than others. It was seen that when a child has low parental supervision they are much more likely to offend. [18] [22] Negative peer group association is more likely when adolescents are left unsupervised. [6] A lack of supervision is also connected to poor relationships between children and parents. Children who are often in conflict with their parents may be less willing to discuss their activities with them. [18] Conflict between a child's parents is also much more closely linked to offending than being raised by a lone parent. [23] Adolescents with siblings who have committed crimes are more likely to be influenced by their siblings and become delinquent if the sibling is older, of the same sex/gender, and maintains a good relationship with the child. [24] Cases where a younger criminal sibling influences an older one are rare. An aggressive more hostile sibling is less likely to influence a younger sibling in the direction of delinquency, if anything, the more strained the relationship between the siblings, the less they will want to be influence each other. [24] Children resulting from unintended pregnancies are more likely to exhibit delinquent behavior. [25] They also have lower mother-child relationship quality. [26] Peer Influence Peer rejection in childhood is also a large predictor of juvenile delinquency. [24] This rejection can affect the child's ability to be socialized properly and often leads them to gravitate towards anti-social peer groups. [24] Association with anti-social groups often leads to the promotion of violent, aggressive and deviant behavior. [24] Robert Vargas's "Being in 'Bad' Company, " explains that adolescents who can choose between groups of friends are less susceptible to peer influence that could lead them to commit illegal acts. [27] Aggressive adolescents who have been rejected by peers are also more likely to have a "hostile attribution bias", which leads people to interpret the actions of others (whether they be hostile or not) as purposefully hostile and aggressive towards them. [28] This often leads to an impulsive and aggressive reaction. [28] Conformity plays a significant role in the vast impact that peer group influence has on an individual. Aronson, Wilson, & Akert (2013) [29] point to the research experiment conducted by Solomon Asch (1956), [30] to ascertain whether a group could influence an individual's behavior. The experiment was executed by asking a participant determine which line in the set of 3 lines matched the length of an original line. Confederates knew the purpose of the experiment and were directed to answer the questions incorrectly during certain phases of the experiment. These confederates answered the question before the participant. The confederates answered the first few questions correctly, as did the participant. Eventually, all of the confederates started to answer incorrectly. The purpose of the experiment was to see if the group would influence the participant to answer incorrectly. Asch found that seventy-six percent of the participants conformed and answered incorrectly when influenced by the group. [30] According to these findings, it was concluded that a peer group that is involved in deviant behavior can influence an adolescent to engage in similar activities. [31] Once the adolescent becomes part of the group, they will be susceptible to groupthink. [29] School to Prison Pipeline A common contributor to juvenile delinquency rates is a phenomenon referred to as the school to prison pipeline. In recent years, school disciplinary measures have become increasingly policed. [4] In fact, 67% of high school students attend schools with police officers. [32] This rise in police presence is often attributed to the implementation of zero tolerance policies. [33] Based on the "broken windows" theory of criminology and the Gun-Free Schools Act, zero tolerance policies stress the use of specific, consistent, and harsh punishment to deal with in school infractions. [34] [33] Often measures such as suspension or expulsion are assigned to students who deviant regardless of the reason or past disciplinary history. [33] This use of punishment often has been linked with increasing high school drop out rates and future arrests. [5] It was found in a 2018 study that students who received a suspension were less likely to graduate and more likely to be arrested or on probation. [35] As stated in research by Matthew Theriot, the increased police presence in school and use of tougher punishment methods leads student actions to be criminalized and in turn referred to juvenile justice systems. [4] The Center on Youth Justice at the Vera Institute of Justice found that “for similar students attending similar schools, a single suspension or expulsion doubles the risk that a student will repeat a grade. [36] Being retained a grade, especially while in middle or high school, is one of the strongest predictors of dropping out. [33] In a national longitudinal study, it was reported that youth with a prior suspension were 68% more likely to dropout of school. [33] The School to Prison Pipeline disproportionately affects minority students. [37] According to data compiled by the United States Government Accountability Office, 39% of students who received a suspension in the 2013-14 school year were Black, even though Black students accounted for only about 15% of public school students. [38] This over-representation applied to both boys and girls of African descent. [38] Compared to White students, black students were expelled or suspended 3 times as frequently. [39] Personality Factors Juvenile Delinquency, is the unlawful activities by minors in their teen or pre-teen years. It is influenced by four main risk factors namely; personality, background, state of mind and drugs. Gender Gender is another risk factor in regards to influencing delinquent behavior. The predictors of different types of delinquency vary across females and males for various reasons, but a common underlying reason for this is socialization. [40] [41] Different predictors of delinquency emerge when analyzing distinct offending types across gender, but overall it is evident that males commit more crimes than females. [42] Across all offenses, females are less likely to be involved in delinquent acts than males. [40] Females not only commit fewer offenses, but they also commit less serious offenses. [41] Socialization plays a key role in the gender gap in delinquency because male and female juveniles are often socialized differently. Girls' and boys' experiences are heavily mediated by gender, which alters their interactions in society. Males and females are differently controlled and bonded, suggesting that they will not make the same choices and may follow different paths of delinquency. Social bonds are important for both males and females, but different aspects of the bond are relevant for each gender. [43] The degree of involvement in social settings is a significant predictor of male’s violent delinquency, but is not significant for females. Males tend to be more connected with their peer relationships which in effect has a stronger influence on their behavior. [44] [45] Association with delinquent peers is one of the strongest correlates of juvenile delinquency, and much of the gender gap can be accounted for by the fact that males are more likely to have friends that support delinquent behavior. Delinquent peers are positively and significantly related to delinquency in males but delinquent peers are negatively and insignificantly related to delinquency for females. [45] As for females, familial functioning relationships have shown to be more important. Female juveniles tend to be more strongly connected with their families, the disconnect or the lack of socialization between their family members can significantly predict their likelihood of committing crimes as juveniles and even as adults. When the family is disrupted, females are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than males. [41] Boys, however, tend to be less connected to their family and are not as affected by these relationships. [44] When it comes to minor offenses such as fighting, vandalism, shoplifting, and the carrying of weapons, differences in gender are limited because they are most common among both males as well as females. Elements of the social bond, social disorganization, routine activities, opportunity, and attitudes towards violence are also related to delinquent behavior among both males and females. [41] Neurological Individual psychological or behavioral risk factors that may make offending more likely include low intelligence, impulsiveness or the inability to delay gratification, aggression, lack of empathy, and restlessness. [22] Other risk factors that may be evident during childhood and adolescence include, aggressive or troublesome behavior, language delays or impairments, lack of emotional control (learning to control one's anger), and cruelty to animals. [24] Children with low intelligence are more likely to do badly in school. This may increase the chances of offending because low educational attainment, a low attachment to school, and low educational aspirations are all risk factors for offending in themselves. [23] [46] [47] Children who perform poorly at school are also more likely to be truant, and the status offense of truancy is linked to further offending. [22] Impulsiveness is seen by some as the key aspect of a child's personality that predicts offending. [22] However, it is not clear whether these aspects of personality are a result of "deficits in the executive functions of the brain " [22] or a result of parental influences or other social factors. [18] In any event, studies of adolescent development show that teenagers are more prone to risk-taking, which may explain the high disproportionate rate of offending among adolescents. [6] Psychological Juvenile delinquents are often diagnosed with different disorders. Around six to sixteen percent of male teens and two to nine percent of female teens have a conduct disorder. These can vary from oppositional-defiant disorder, which is not necessarily aggressive, to antisocial personality disorder, often diagnosed among psychopaths. [48] A conduct disorder can develop during childhood and then manifest itself during adolescence. [49] Juvenile delinquents who have recurring encounters with the criminal justice system, or in other words those who are life-course-persistent offenders, are sometimes diagnosed with conduct disorders because they show a continuous disregard for their own and others safety and/or property. Once the juvenile continues to exhibit the same behavioral patterns and turns eighteen he is then at risk of being diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and much more prone to become a serious criminal offender. [50] One of the main components used in diagnosing an adult with antisocial personality disorder consists of presenting documented history of conduct disorder before the age of 15. These two personality disorders are analogous in their erratic and aggressive behavior. This is why habitual juvenile offenders diagnosed with conduct disorder are likely to exhibit signs of antisocial personality disorder early in life and then as they mature. Some times these juveniles reach maturation and they develop into career criminals, or life-course-persistent offenders. "Career criminals begin committing antisocial behavior before entering grade school and are versatile in that they engage in an array of destructive behaviors, offend at exceedingly high rates, and are less likely to quit committing crime as they age. " [50] Quantitative research was completed on 9, 945 juvenile male offenders between the ages of 10 and 18 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the 1970s. [51] The longitudinal birth cohort was used to examine a trend among a small percentage of career criminals who accounted for the largest percentage of crime activity. [51] The trend exhibited a new phenomenon among habitual offenders. The phenomenon indicated that only 6% of the youth qualified under their definition of a habitual offender (known today as life-course persistent offenders, or career criminals) and yet were responsible for 52% of the delinquency within the entire study. [51] The same 6% of chronic offenders accounted for 71% of the murders and 69% of the aggravated assaults. [51] This phenomenon was later researched among an adult population in 1977 and resulted in similar findings. S. A. Mednick did a birth cohort of 30, 000 males and found that 1% of the males were responsible for more than half of the criminal activity. [52] The habitual crime behavior found among juveniles is similar to that of adults. As stated before most life-course persistent offenders begin exhibiting antisocial, violent, and/or delinquent behavior, prior to adolescence. Therefore, while there is a high rate of juvenile delinquency, it is the small percentage of life-course persistent, career criminals that are responsible for most of the violent crimes. Theories There are a multitude of different theories on the causes of crime; most, if not all, of are applicable to the causes of juvenile delinquency. Rational choice Classical criminology stresses that the causes of crime lie within the individual offender, rather than in their external environment. For classicists, offenders are motivated by rational self-interest, and the importance of free will and personal responsibility is emphasized. [53] Rational choice theory is the clearest example of this idea. Delinquency is one of the major factors motivated by rational choice. Current positivist approaches generally focus on the culture. A type of criminological theory attributing variation in crime and delinquency over time and among territories to the absence or breakdown of communal institutions (e. g. family, school, church and social groups. ) and communal relationships that traditionally encouraged cooperative relationships among people. Strain theory is associated mainly with the work of Robert Merton. He felt that there are institutionalized paths to success in society. Strain theory holds that crime is caused by the difficulty those in poverty have in achieving socially valued goals by legitimate means. [53] As those with, for instance, poor educational attainment have difficulty achieving wealth and status by securing well paid employment, they are more likely to use criminal means to obtain these goals. [54] Merton's suggests five adaptations to this dilemma: Innovation: individuals who accept socially approved goals, but not necessarily the socially approved means. Retreatism: those who reject socially approved goals and the means for acquiring them. Ritualism: those who buy into a system of socially approved means, but lose sight of the goals. Merton believed that drug users are in this category. Conformity: those who conform to the system's means and goals. Rebellion: people who negate socially approved goals and means by creating a new system of acceptable goals and means. A difficulty with strain theory is that it does not explore why children of low-income families would have poor educational attainment in the first place. More importantly is the fact that much youth crime does not have an economic motivation. Strain theory fails to explain violent crime, the type of youth crime that causes most anxiety to the public. Differential association Differential association is another theory that deals with young people in a group context, and it looks at how peer pressure and the existence of gangs could lead them into crime. It suggests young people are motivated to commit crimes by delinquent peers and learn criminal skills from them. The diminished influence of peers after men marry has also been cited as a factor in desisting from offending. There is strong evidence that young people with criminal friends are more likely to commit crimes themselves. However offenders may prefer to associate with one another, rather than delinquent peers causing someone to start offending. Furthermore, there is the question of how the delinquent peer group initially became delinquent. Labeling Labeling theory is a concept within Criminology that aims to explain deviant behavior from the social context rather than looking at the individual themselves. It is part of Interactionism criminology that states that once young people have been labeled as criminal they are more likely to offend. [53] The idea is that once labelled as deviant a young person may accept that role, and be more likely to associate with others who have been similarly labelled. [53] Labelling theorists say that male children from poor families are more likely to be labelled deviant, and that this may partially explain why there are more working class young male offenders. [23] Social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self-control and can reduce the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial. The four types of control can help prevent juvenile delinquency are: Direct: by which punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, and compliance is rewarded by parents, family, and authority figures. Internal: by which a youth refrains from delinquency through the conscience or superego. Indirect: by identification with those who influence behavior, say because his or her delinquent act might cause pain and disappointment to parents and others with whom he or she has close relationships. Control through needs satisfaction, i. if all an individual's needs are met, there is no point in criminal activity. Prevention 1936 poster promoting planned housing as a method to deter juvenile delinquency, showing silhouettes of a child stealing a piece of fruit and the older child involved in armed robbery. Delinquency prevention is the broad term for all efforts aimed at preventing youth from becoming involved in criminal, or other antisocial, activity. Prevention services may include activities such as substance abuse education and treatment, family counseling, youth mentoring, parenting education, educational support, and youth sheltering. Increasing availability and use of family planning services, including education and contraceptives helps to reduce unintended pregnancy and unwanted births, which are risk factors for delinquency. It has been noted that often interventions such as peer groups may leave at-risk children worse off then if there had never been an intervention. [55] Punishment One criminal justice approach to juvenile delinquency is through the juvenile court systems. These courts are specifically for minors to be tried in. Sometimes, juvenile offenders are sent to adult prisons. [56] In the United States, children as young as 13 can be tried and convicted as adults. [57] According to the US Department of Justice, about 3, 600 children are housed in adult jails. [58] Policies Education promotes economic growth, national productivity and innovation, and values of democracy and social cohesion. [59] Prevention through education has been seen to discourage delinquency for minors. [60] A well-known intervention treatment is the Scared Straight Treatment. [61] According to research done by Scott Lilienfeld, this type of intervention is often harmful because of juvenile offenders’ vicarious exposure to criminal role models and the possibility of increased resentment in reaction to the confrontational interactions. [62] It has been reasoned that the most efficient interventions are those that not only separate at-risk teens from anti-social peers, and place them instead with pro-social ones, but also simultaneously improve their home environment by training parents with appropriate parenting styles. [55] In response to the data correlated with the school to prison pipeline, some institutions have implemented restorative justice policies. [63] The restorative justice approach emphasizes conflict resolution and non-punitive intervention. [64] Interventions such as hiring more counselors as opposed to security professionals or focusing on talking through problems would be included in a restorative justice approach. [64] Juvenile sex crimes Juveniles who commit sexual crimes refer to individuals adjudicated in a criminal court for a sexual crime. [65] Sex crimes are defined as sexually abusive behavior committed by a person under the age of 18 that is perpetrated "against the victim's will, without consent, and in an aggressive, exploitative, manipulative, and/or threatening manner". [66] It is important to utilize appropriate terminology for juvenile sex offenders. Harsh and inappropriate expressions include terms such as " pedophile, child molester, predator, perpetrator, and mini-perp" [67] These terms have often been associated with this group, regardless of the youth’s age, diagnosis, cognitive abilities, or developmental stage. [67] Using appropriate expressions can facilitate a more accurate depiction of juvenile sex offenders and may decrease the subsequent aversive psychological affects from using such labels. [67] In the Arab Gulf states [sic], homosexual acts are classified as an offense, and constitute one of the primary crimes for which juvenile males are charged. [68] Prevalence data Examining prevalence data and the characteristics of juvenile sex offenders is a fundamental component to obtain a precise understanding of this heterogeneous group. With mandatory reporting laws in place, it became a necessity for providers to report any incidents of disclosed sexual abuse. Longo and Prescott indicate that juveniles commit approximately 30-60% of all child sexual abuse. [67] The Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports indicate that in 2008 youth under the age of 18 accounted for 16. 7% of forcible rapes and 20. 61% of other sexual offenses. [69] Center for Sex Offender Management indicates that approximately one-fifth of all rapes and one-half of all sexual child molestation can be accounted for by juveniles. [70] Official record data The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention indicates that 15% of juvenile arrests occurred for rape in 2006, and 12% were clearance (resolved by an arrest). [71] The total number of juvenile arrests in 2006 for forcible rape was 3, 610 with 2% being female and 36% being under the age of 15 years. [71] This trend has declined throughout the years with forcible rape from 1997–2006 being −30% and from 2005 to 2006 being −10%. [71] The OJJDP reports that the juvenile arrest rate for forcible rape increased from the early 1980s through the 1990s and at that time it fell again. [71] All types of crime rates fell in the 1990s. [ citation needed] The OJJDP also reported that the total number of juvenile arrests in 2006 for sex offenses (other than forcible rape) was 15, 900 with 10% being female and 47% being under the age of 15. [71] There was again a decrease with the trend throughout the years with sex offenses from 1997 to 2006 being −16% and from 2005 to 2006 being −9%. [71] Males who commit sexual crimes Barbaree and Marshall indicate that juvenile males contribute to the majority of sex crimes, with 2–4% of adolescent males having reported committing sexually assaultive behavior, and 20% of all rapes and 30–50% of all child molestation are perpetrated by adolescent males. [65] It is clear that males are over-represented in this population. This is consistent with Ryan and Lane’s research indicating that males account for 91-93% of the reported juvenile sex offenses. [66] Righthand and Welch reported that females account for an estimated 2–11% of incidents of sexual offending. [72] In addition, it reported by The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention that in the juvenile arrests during 2006, African American male youth were disproportionately arrested (34%) for forcible rape. In one case in a foster home a 13-year-old boy raped a 9-year-old boy by having forced anal sex with him, in a court hearing the 9-year-old boy said he has done this multiple times, that the 13-year-old boy was charged for sexual assault. [71] Juvenile sex crimes internationally Sexual crimes committed by juveniles are not just an issue in the United States. Studies from the Netherlands show that out of 3200 sex offenders recorded by police in 2009, 672 of those were juveniles, approximately 21 percent of sexual offenders. The study also points out the male to female ratio of sexual predators. [73] In 2009, a U. congressman proposed legislature that would create an International Sex Offender Registry. The bill was introduced due to the fact that because laws differ in different countries someone who is on the sex offender registry in the U. who may be barred from living certain places and doing certain activities has free range in other less developed countries. This can lead to child sex tourism, when a sexual predator will go to less developed countries and prey on young boys and girls. Karne Newburn in his article, The Prospect of an International Sex Offender Registry, pointed out some serious flaws in the proposed bill, such as creating safety issues within the communities for the sex offenders placed on the registry. Newburn suggested instead of creating an International Sex Offender Registry from the U. model the U. join other countries in a dialogue on creating an effective model. As of now no registry exists. Despite this there is still interest in creating some sort of international registry. [74] See also Age of onset (criminology) Anti-social behaviour order Deviance (sociology) Juvenile delinquency in the United States Kazan phenomenon Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Person in need of supervision David Morgan (psychologist) Sex offender registries in the United States Solitary confinement of juvenile offenders Teen courts Truancy Youth court Young offender Banchō (position) Sukeban Public criminology References ^ Siegel, Larry J. ; Welsh, Brandon (2011). Juvenile Delinquency: The Core (4th ed. ). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0534519322. ^ Goode, Erica (December 19, 2011). "Since 2008, "an estimated 60% of children in the United States were exposed to violence, crime, or abuse in their homes, schools, and communities within the past year. Approximately 46% were assaulted at least once in the past year and 10% were injured in an assault. 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Social Problems. 63 (1): 68–86. 1093/socpro/spv026. ISSN 0037-7791. ^ a b "Discipline Disparities for Black Students, Boys, and Students with Disabilities" (PDF). United States Government Accountability Office. March 2018. ^ "The school to prison pipeline, explained — Justice Policy Institute".. Retrieved 2020-03-08. ^ a b Junger-Tas, Josine; Ribeaud, Denis; Cruyff, Maarten J. L. F. (July 2004). "Juvenile Delinquency and Gender". European Journal of Criminology. 1 (3): 333–375. 1177/1477370804044007. ISSN 1477-3708. ^ a b c d Steketee, Majone; Junger, Marianne; Junger-Tas, Josine (2013-01-20). "Sex Differences in the Predictors of Juvenile Delinquency". Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 29 (1): 88–105. 1177/1043986212470888. ISSN 1043-9862. ^ Daigle, Leah E. ; Cullen, Francis T. ; Wright, John Paul (July 2007). "Gender Differences in the Predictors of Juvenile Delinquency". Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 5 (3): 254–286. 1177/1541204007301289. ISSN 1541-2040. ^ Svensson, Robert (October 2004). "Shame as a Consequence of the Parent-Child Relationship". 1 (4): 477–504. 1177/1477370804045692. ISSN 1477-3708. ^ a b Rhoades, Kimberly A. ; Leve, Leslie D. ; Eddy, J. Mark; Chamberlain, Patricia (December 2016). "Predicting the transition from juvenile delinquency to adult criminality: Gender-specific influences in two high-risk samples: Recidivism from adolescence to adulthood". Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health. 26 (5): 336–351. 1002/cbm. 1957. PMC 4624625. PMID 25916547. ^ a b Piquero, Nicole Leeper; Gover, Angela R. ; MacDonald, John M. ; Piquero, Alex R. (March 2005). "The Influence of Delinquen Peers on Delinquency". Youth & Society. 36 (3): 251–275. 1177/0044118x04265652. ISSN 0044-118X. ^ "Juvenile Arrest and Collateral Educational Damage in the Transition to Adulthood"., retrieved June 18, 2012 ^ Kirk, David S. ; Sampson, Robert J. (2012). "Juvenile Arrest and Collateral Educational Damage in the Transition to Adulthood". Sociology of Education. 86 (1): 36–62. 1177/0038040712448862. PMC 4192649. PMID 25309003. ^ Hare (1991). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist Revised. Toronto, Ontario: Multi-Health Systems. ^ Holmes, S. E. ; James, R. ; Javad, K. (2001). "Risk Factors in Childhood that Lead to the Development of Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder". Child Psychiatry and Human Development. 31 (3): 183–193. 1023/A:1026425304480. PMID 11196010. ^ a b DeLisi, Matt (2005). Career Criminals in Society. London, United Kingdom: Sage Publications. p. 39. ISBN 978-1412905534. ^ a b c d Marvin, Wolfgang; Figlio, Robert M. ; Sellin, Thorsten (1972). Delinquency in a Birth Cohort. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226905532. ^ Raine, A. (1993). The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego, California: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0125761604. ^ a b c d Eadie, T. ; Morley, R. (2003). "Crime, Justice and Punishment". In Baldock, J. Social Policy (3rd ed. ISBN 978-0199258949. ^ Brown, S (1998) Understanding Youth and Crime (Listening to youth? ), Buckingham: Open University Press. ^ a b Dishion; McCord (1999). "When interventions harm:Peer groups and problem behavior". 54 (9): 755–764. 1037/0003-066x. 54. 9. 755. PMID 10510665. ^ Avenue, Human Rights Watch | 350 Fifth; York, 34th Floor | New; t 1. 4700, NY 10118-3299 USA |. "Juvenile Justice". Retrieved 2020-03-08. ^ "Children in Adult Prison". Equal Justice Initiative. Retrieved 2020-03-08. ^ "Jail inmates younger than 18, 1993-2017".. Retrieved 2020-03-08. ^ World Bank. "Education and development". Archived from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2012. ^ Katsiyannis, Antonis; Ryan, Joseph B. ; Zhang, Dalun; Spann, Anastasia (2008-03-04). "Juvenile Delinquency and Recidivism: The Impact of Academic Achievement". Reading & Writing Quarterly. 24 (2): 177–196. 1080/10573560701808460. ISSN 1057-3569. ^ Petrosino, A; Turpin-Petrosino, Carolyn; Hollis-Peel, Meghan; Lavenberg, Julia (2013). "Scared Straight and Other Juvenile Awareness Programs for Preventing Juvenile Deliquency: A Systematic Review". Campbell Systematic Reviews. 5: 1–55. 4073/csr. 2013. 5. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott O. (2007). "Psychological Treatments That Cause Harm". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2 (1): 53–70. CiteSeerX 10. 1. 531. 9405. 1745-6916. 2007. 00029. PMID 26151919. ^ "Improving School Climate: Evidence from Schools Implementing Restorative Practices" (PDF). International Institute for Restorative Practices. 2014. ^ a b Fronius, Trevor (Feb 2016). "Restorative Justice in U. S. Schools: A Research Review" (PDF). WestEd Justice & Prevention Research Center. ^ a b Barbaree, H. E., Marshall, W. An introduction to the juvenile sex offender: Terms, concepts, and definitions (2nd Ed. New York: Guilford Press. ^ a b Ryan, G., Lane, S. (Eds. (1997). Juvenile Sexual Offending: Causes consequences and correction. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ^ a b c d Longo, R. E., Prescott, D. (2006). Introduction: A brief history of treating youth with sexual behavior problems. Current perspectives: Working with sexually aggressive youth and youth with sexual behavior problems, (pp. 31-43). Massachusetts: NEARI Press. ^ Booth, Marilyn. 2002. "Arab adolescents facing the future". pp. 232 in Brown et. al., (eds. ) The World's Youth: Adolescence in Eight Regions of the Globe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052180910X ^ "FBI — Uniform Crime Reporting". FBI. Archived from the original on 2004-10-24. ^ Hunter, J. (December 1999). "The Center for Sex Offender Management. Understanding juvenile sex offending behavior: Emerging research, treatment approaches, and management practices". Archived from the original on December 21, 2009. Retrieved October 11, 2009. ^ a b c d e f g Snyder, H. M. (November 2008). "Juvenile arrests 2006" (PDF). Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 8, 2009. Retrieved October 15, 2009. ^ Righthand, S. ; Welch, C. (2004). "Characteristics of youth who sexually offend". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 13 (3): 15–32. 1300/J070v13n03_02. PMID 15914388. ^ Wijkman, Miriam; Bijleveld, Catrien; Hendriks, Jan (2014). "Juvenile female sex offenders: Offender and offence characteristics". 11: 23–38. 1177/1477370813479077. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-08-07. CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( link) Further reading Kalra, Michelle (1996). Juvenile delinquency and adult aggression against women (M. thesis). Wilfrid Laurier University. E. Mulvey, MW Arthur, ND Reppucci, "The prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency: A review of the research", Clinical Psychology Review, 1993. Edward P. Mulvey, Michael W. Arthur, & N. Dickon Reppucci, "Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency: A Review of the Research", The Prevention Researcher, Volume 4, Number 2, 1997, Pages 1-4. Regoli, Robert M. and Hewitt, John D. Delinquency in Society, 6th ed., 2006. Siegel, J Larry. Juvenile Delinquency with Infotrac: theory, practices and law, 2002. United Nations, Research Report on Juvenile Delinquency (pdf). Zigler, E; Taussig, C; Black, K (Aug 1992). "Early childhood intervention. A promising preventative for juvenile delinquency". Am Psychol. 47 (8): 997–1006. 47. 8. 997. PMID 1510335. Gang Cop: The Words and Ways of Officer Paco Domingo (2004) by Malcolm The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control (1995), by Malcolm W. Klein American Youth Violence (1998) by Franklin Zimring Street Wars: Gangs and the Future of Violence (2004) by Tom Hayden Fist, Stick, Knife, Gun (1995) by Geoffrey Canada Violence: Reflections on a National Epidemic (1996) by James Gilligan Lost Boys: Why Our Sons Turn Violent and How We Can Save Them (1999) by James Gabarino Last Chance in Texas: The Redemption of Criminal Youth (2005) by John Hubner Breaking Rank: A Top Cop's Expose of the Dark Side of American Policing (2005) by Norm Stamper Peetz P., "Youth, Crime, and the Responses of the State: Discourses on Violence in Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua", GIGA Working Papers, Number 80, 2008. Harnsberger, R. Scott. A Guide to Sources of Texas Criminal Justice Statistics [North Texas Crime and Criminal Justice Series, no. 6]. Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1-57441-308-3 Morgan, David and Ruszczynski, Stan. Lectures on Violence, Perversion and Delinquency. The Portman Papers Series. (2007) ISBN 978-1-78049-483-8 External links Delinquency Prevention - Clearinghouse of juvenile delinquency prevention information Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime - major study at Edinburgh Law School " State Responses to Serious and Violent Juvenile Crime. " - Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. A Voyage into the Mind of Delinquent and Destitute Adolescents Guide to Juvenile Justice in New York City Juvenile Sex Offenders and Juvenile Sex Crimes in California - Overview of juvenile sex crimes and juvenile sex offender registration in California. 5 Facts About Child on Child Sexual Abuse (COCSA) from Defend Innocence. This page was last edited on 12 March 2020, at 18:24.
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